Polymorphism is one of the core ideas behind reusable software, but its roots stretch across decades of programming language evolution. This post traces how polymorphism emerged, diversified, and became central to modern development.

Built-in arrays, std::array, and std::vector all store elements contiguously, but they differ sharply in size flexibility, safety, and lifetime/ownership. This guide explains the tradeoffs and gives practical rules of thumb for choosing the right one.

A practical guide to std::unordered_map: how it works, which methods to reach for, and the pitfalls that matter in real code. Includes version notes, tuning tips, and idiomatic patterns for counting, caching, and fast key lookups.

A practical walkthrough of the textbook AI agent taxonomy (Russell & Norvig), with a scan-friendly comparison table, modern RL/LLM mappings, and common failure modes to help you choose and debug agent architectures.

Dynamic dispatch selects a method/function implementation at runtime, enabling polymorphism but introducing indirection and optimization challenges. This post explains the main dispatch mechanisms, how runtimes optimize them, and how common languages map onto these mechanisms.

A practical tour of common Rust idioms you’ll see in real codebases—grouped by theme, with guidance on why they’re preferred and when to avoid overusing them.

Learn how C++ uses the `virtual` keyword to enable runtime polymorphism, proper overriding, and safe destruction through base class pointers. This post covers virtual functions, virtual destructors, and common pitfalls with clear examples.

A high-quality, practical explanation of JWTs: what they are, what they replaced, how they work in modern systems, and what security guarantees they do and do not provide.

A high-quality practical guide to OAuth 2.0: what it is, what it replaced, how it is used today, and what security guarantees it does and does not provide.

A high-quality practical guide to RAG: what it is, what it replaced, how it is used in modern systems, and what security guarantees it does and does not provide.

A practical case study on publishing course notes with AI-assisted workflows, Cloudflare R2 assets, HTTP Range support, and edge-aware caching.

A practical guide for engineers and tech leads on using systems thinking to improve architecture, reliability, performance, security, and delivery outcomes.

A pedagogical look at simple-structure operating systems like MS-DOS, why their lack of separation between user and kernel mode made them fundamentally fragile, and what modern OS design learned from those failures.

My take on what Claude Opus 4.6 and GPT-5.3 Codex revealed about agentic engineering when both launched on February 5, 2026.

A first-person, practical explanation of what tokens are in LLMs, why they matter in real projects, and how I think about token budgets.